At the beginning of the 16th century, the Inca empire extended over a vast region, from present-day Colombia to Chile. Ruled from Cusco, this empire was highly centralized and known for its extensive road networks, agricultural terraces, and rich culture. However, the arrival of Spanish conquistadors would forever change the history of this region.
In 1526, Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish explorer, landed on the Peruvian coast for the first time. Seduced by tales of wealth regarding the Inca empire, he returned to Spain to obtain the Crown's authorization to conquer this land. When he returned in 1532 with a small group of men determined to subdue this empire, a civil war was raging between two Inca brothers, Atahualpa and Huascar, for the throne.
Atahualpa emerged victorious, but shortly after, he was captured by Pizarro during the ambush at Cajamarca. In exchange for his release, Atahualpa offered a massive ransom of gold and silver, but despite the payment, he was executed in 1533. The fall of the Inca empire marked the beginning of Spanish domination in Peru.
In 1535, Pizarro founded the city of Lima, which quickly became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. This city became the center of Spanish power in South America, housing the main administrative, religious, and commercial institutions of the Spanish colonial empire.
The Viceroyalty of Peru included most of South America, and Lima was its heart. Thanks to its port, Callao, Lima became a nerve center of transatlantic trade, where ships loaded with gold, silver, and other natural riches from the continent departed for Spain. In addition, Lima became a major religious center, with the construction of numerous churches, monasteries, and Catholic missions intended to convert the indigenous populations.
Spanish colonists established an economic system based on the exploitation of the natural resources of the Peruvian territory. The most important of these were the Potosí silver mines, located in present-day Bolivia, which became one of the main sources of wealth for the Spanish empire.
The exploitation of these resources relied on the use of indigenous labor. The encomienda system was implemented to distribute land and indigenous workers to Spanish colonists. In exchange for their forced labor, the colonists were supposed to "protect" and convert the natives to Christianity, but in reality, conditions were often close to slavery.
Besides the extraction of precious metals, Peru also became an important agricultural producer. The colonists set up plantations for sugar cane, cocoa, and corn. These large agricultural estates, called haciendas, were the site of intensive exploitation of indigenous and African workers brought to Peru as slaves.
Spanish domination was not established without resistance. From the beginning of colonization, the Incas attempted to regain control of their lands. Manco Inca, appointed as leader by the Spanish, rebelled in 1536. Entrenched in the Vilcabamba region, he waged a guerrilla war against the colonists for nearly 40 years, until his last successor, Tupac Amaru, was captured and executed in 1572.
Colonial domination was marked by numerous revolts, notably the famous rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780. Túpac Amaru II, a descendant of the last Inca emperors, led a major uprising against the abuses of the Spanish. His movement was brutally repressed, but he remains an iconic figure in the struggle for the rights of indigenous peoples.
In the 18th century, the Spanish crown, under the Bourbons, sought to reform the colonial administration to increase its efficiency and the metropolis's revenues. These "Bourbon reforms" aimed to further centralize power and impose new taxes on the colonists. They were poorly received and provoked tensions between Spanish colonists, the indigenous people, and the crown.
At the same time, the influence of Enlightenment ideas and the revolutions in North America and France inspired new ideas of independence. The economic situation deteriorated in the early 19th century, and figures like José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar emerged to liberate Peru from Spanish domination.
In 1820, José de San Martín landed on the Peruvian coast with his troops. In 1821, he entered Lima and proclaimed the independence of Peru, although the Spanish continued to control certain regions of the country.
It was not until 1824, after the decisive battle of Ayacucho, that Peruvian independence was definitively acquired thanks to Simón Bolívar. The victory at Ayacucho marked the end of Spanish control in South America. Peru then entered a new era, marked by internal political struggles and the quest for stabilization after several centuries of colonial domination.
